Article-processing charges as a barrier for science in low-to-medium income regions

It is widely accepted that science is universal by nature. However, to make science universal, access to research findings is imperative. The open access model of publication of academic articles was established and consolidated during the last two decades. However, most of the open access journals apply article-processing charges (APCs), which can cost more than USD 10,000.00. In regions where support for research is scarce, these funds are usually not available. Similar problems occur in countries with weak economies and, consequently, unfavorable currency conversion rates. This situation reveals a barrier to the alleged universality of science and the access to research findings. In this manuscript, the barriers faced by authors and institutions from low-to-middle income regions to cover APCs and make their science freely available are discussed and illustrated with recent numbers.

Brazilian science: towards extinction?

Brazilian science is under attack. In this manuscript, we will discuss the most recent events that, if not reverted, will make Brazilian science inviable. We urge the scientific community in Brazil and abroad to stand up and resist in defense of more than a century of essential scientific contributions.

Acute Chagas disease in the state of Pará, Amazon Region: is it increasing?

Acute Chagas disease (ACD) has a distinct epidemiological profile in the Amazon Region, with cases and outbreaks of Trypanosoma cruzi infection being possibly related to the ingestion of contaminated food. Data on ACD in the state of Pará retrieved from 2000 to 2016 from the Brazilian Notifiable Diseases Information System (SINAN) were evaluated. During this period, 2,030 of the 16,807 reported cases were confirmed, with a higher incidence between the months of August and December, thus characterising a seasonal pattern of acute infection, and coinciding with the higher production of "açaí", one fruit likely involved in the oral transmission of the disease. Evaluation of the absolute numbers of confirmed ACD cases secondary to oral infection suggests that infection through this route increased during the 2010-2016 period, differing from what was recorded in terms of vectorial or other infection routes. These findings point to the need of intensifying strategies to prevent or substantially reduce oral transmission.

Fibronectin modulates thymocyte-thymic epithelial cell interactions following Trypanosoma cruzi infection

Developing thymocytes interact with thymic epithelial cells (TECs) through cell-cell interactions, TEC-derived secretory moieties and extracellular matrix (ECM)-mediated interactions. These physiological interactions are crucial for normal thymocyte differentiation, but can be disrupted in pathological situations. Indeed, there is severe thymic atrophy in animals acutely infected with Trypanosoma cruzi due to CD4+CD8+ thymocyte depletion secondary to caspase-mediated apoptosis, together with changes in ECM deposition and thymocyte migration. We studied an in vitro model of TEC infection by T. cruzi and found that infected TEC cultures show a reduced number of cells, which was likely associated with decreased proliferative capacity, but not with increased cell death, as demonstrated by bromodeoxyuridine and annexin-V labelling. The infected TEC cultures exhibited increased expression of fibronectin (FN), laminin (LM) and type IV collagen. Importantly, treatment with FN increased the relative number of infected cells, whereas treatment with anti-FN or anti-LM antibodies resulted in lower infection rates. Consistent with these data, we observed increased thymocyte adhesion to infected TEC cultures. Overall, these results suggest that ECM molecules, particularly FN, facilitate infection of the thymic epithelium and that the consequent enhancement of ECM expression might be associated with changes in TEC-thymocyte interactions.

Primera Red Sudamericana de Biomedicina. Investigación, educación y biotecnología aplicadas a la salud / [First South american network of biomedical research. Education and biotechnology for health].

It is in our interest, in this brief manuscript, to report the creation of the first program of regional integration of a network of research institutes in Biomedicine belonging to members of the MERCOSUR countries. We discuss some of the foundations that gave sustenance to its creation and its objectives in the medium and long term. In addition, we consider the potential of the results of this program in the fields of applied medical research, education and biotechnology.

Can thymic epithelial cells be infected by human T-lymphotropic virus type 1?

The human T-lymphotropic virus type-1 (HTLV-1) is the cause of adult T cell leukaemias/lymphoma. Because thymic epithelial cells (TEC) express recently defined receptors for the virus, it seemed conceivable that these cells might be a target for HTLV-1 infection. We developed an in vitro co-culture system comprising HTLV-1+-infected T cells and human TECs. Infected T cells did adhere to TECs and, after 24 h, the viral proteins gp46 and p19 were observed in TECs. After incubating TECs with culture supernatants from HTLV-1+-infected T cells, we detected gp46 on TEC membranes and the HTLV-1 tax gene integrated in the TEC genome. In conclusion, the human thymic epithelium can be infected in vitro by HTLV-1, not only via cell-cell contact, but also via exposure to virus-containing medium.

Procedures to characterize and study P2Z/P2X7 purinoceptor: flow cytometry as a promising practical, reliable tool

The expression of P2Z/P2X7 purinoceptor in different cell types is well established. This receptor is a member of the ionotropic P2X receptor family, which is composed by seven cloned receptor subtypes (P2X1 - P2X7). Interestingly, the P2Z/P2X7 has a unique feature of being linked to a non-selective pore which allows the passage of molecules up to 900 Da depending on the cell type. Early studies of P2Z/P2X7 purinoceptor were exclusively based on classical pharmacological studies but the recent tools of molecular biology have enriched the analysis of the receptor expression. The majority of assays and techniques chosen so far to study the expression of P2Z/P2X7 receptor explore directly or indirectly the effects of the opening of P2Z/P2X7 linked pore. In this review we describe the main techniques used to study the expression and functionality of P2Z/P2X7 receptor. Additionally, the increasing need and importance of a multifunctional analysis of P2Z/P2X7 expression based on flow cytometry technology is discussed, as well as the adoption of a more complete analysis of P2Z/P2X7 expression involving different techniques.

Importância do camundongo mdx na fisiopatologia da distrofia muscular de Duchenne / The importance of mdx mouse in the pathophysiology of Duchenne's muscular distrophy

O camundongo mdx desenvolve distrofia muscular recessiva ligada ao cromossoma X (locus Xp21.1) e näo expressa distrofina. Embora näo apresente intensa fibrose do tecido muscular e acúmulo de tecido adiposo, é considerado o modelo animal mais adequado da distrofia muscular de Duchenne. As alteraçäes estruturais no tecido muscular associadas à mionecrose e presença do infiltrado inflamatório com predomínio de linfócitos e monócitos/macrófagos sugerem uma participaçäo do sistema imunológico nesta miopatia. Além disso a modulaçäo na expressäo dos componentes da matriz extracelular no microambiente muscular nas vßrias fases da doença (início, mionecrose, regeneraçäo) indicam um papel importante do conjuntivo no direcionamento das células inflamatórias para o foco da lesäo muscular. O camundongo mdx coloca-se como um excelente modelo para o estudo dos mecanismos patogenéticos da mionecrose e regeneraçäo na distrofia muscular de Duchenne, possibilitando inclusive o desenvolvimento de estratégias terapêuticas mais adequadas.

Correlaçäo entre a expressäo celular do CD44 e formas tumorais das leucemias linfoblásticas / Correlation between the cellular expression of CD44 and the forms of acute lymphoblastic

O CD44 é uma molécula de adesäo que se expressa em linfócitos-B e T, participa na mediaçäo de adesäo destas células e dos componentes da matriz extracelular e na adesäo a células endoteliais vasculares. A proposta deste estudo foi a de investigar a expressäo celular do CD44 em 108 pacientes portadores de leucemias linfoblásticas (57 leucemias linfóides agudas de linhagem B e 51 de células-T), através de uma metodologia que inclui a análise citomorfológica e imunofenotipagem, com um painel de anticorpos monoclonais detectados pelas técnicas da imunoperoxidase conjugada, e imunofluorescência com análise por citometria de fluxo. Inicialmente, investigamos a correlaçäo do CD44 com as distintas fases de diferenciaçäo celular destas leucemias, determinadas pela expressäo antigênica. Em seguida, investigamos a correlaçäo desta molécula com os achados clínico-patológicos, como a presença de massas tumorais, adenomegalias, infiltraçäo de células leucêmicas no sistema nervoso central e em outros órgäos, além da presença de células blásticas no sangue periférico. Paralelamente ao estudo das leucemias, também investigamos a expressäo de CD44 em linfócitos do sangue periférico oriundos de 11 indivíduos sadios. A expressäo de CD44 foi positiva em 83 casos (76,8 porcento) das leucemias linfóides agudas, sendo 46 casos (80,7 porcento) das LLA de linhagem B, e em 37 casos (72,5 porcento) de LLA de células-T. Nos quatro subgrupos que compöem as LLA de linhagem B, observamos a expressäo desta molécula em dois casos (66,7 porcento) das LLA do tipo null; em 34 casos (77,3 porcento) das LLA do tipo comum e em todos os casos de LLA pré-B (cu+) e LLA-B (Smlg+). Já nas LLA de células-T, a expressäo do CD44 mostrou-se variável nos três subgrupos que compöem estas leucemias. No subgrupo I (LLA pré-T), todos os nove casos (100 por cento) foram CD44 positivos; nos 14 casos do Subgrupo II (LLA-T intermediária), quatro casos (28,6 porcento) foram CD44 positivos e no Subgrupo III (LLA-T-medular) o CD44 foi positivo em 24 casos (85,7 porcento). A correlaçäo da expressäo de CD44 com o perfil...

Importância da aplicação de anticorpos monoclonais no diagnóstico laboratorial das leucemias linfóides agudas / The importance to application of monoclonal antibodies in laboratorial diagnostic of lymphoblastic leukemia

Os autores realizaram um estudo em 126 pacientes portadores de leukemia linfóide aguda (LLA) antes do tratamento, com metodologias que incluiu a análise citomorfológica e imunofenotipagem com painel de anticorpos monoclonais (AC.Mo.) específico para leucemias agudas com CD1a, CD2, CD3, CD4, CD7, CD8, CD10, CD13, CD14, CD19, CD22, CD34, anti IgM, antikappa, anti lambda. Anti cadeia mu e anti TdT, através de técnicas como a imunoiperoxidase e citometria de fluxo. Paralelaamente também foram investigadas informações referentes aos pacientes com a idade e sexo, aqssim como dados clínicos e laboratoriais dentre os quais a presença de massas tumorais, linfadenopatia, hepatomegalia, esplenomegalia, infiltração leucêmica no sistema nervoso central (SNC) e contagem de células blásticas no sangue periférico. Os resultados demonstraram que 71 casos (56,7%) foram de LLA de linhagem B (Null, comum, pré-B e B) e 55 LLA de Células T (pré-T, T-intermediária e T-medular). Relacionando-se estes dados com o sexo, observou-se que o sexo masculino foi o mais acometido pela doença, independente da classificação imunológica. Correlacionando-se a idade com os subtipos imunológicos, observou-se que as LLAs de linhagem B foram mais freqüentes em crianças (idade  que 15 anos) ao passo que as LLAs de Células T estiveram mais presentes em indivíduos adultos. A freqüência da r elação destas imunofenotipagens com os subtipos morfológicos da classificação FAB apresentaram uma correlação direta entre o subgrupo L3 e LLA de células B, ao passo que os subgrupos L1 e L2 correlacionaram-se mais freqüentemente com as LLA pré-B e T respectivamente. A análise da correlação entre a imunofenotipagem e o perfil clínico patológico destas LLA demonstraram que as LLA de Células T estavam mais associadas com formas tumorais da doença com uma maior incidência de linfadenopatias, hepatomegalias, esplenomegalias, massas tumorais e infiltração no SNC, apresentando também uma maior contagem de células blásticas no sangue periférico que os demais subgrupos. Finalizando, estes dados, sugerem que a imunofenotipagem é uma importante metodologia no diagnóstico, na monitoração da avaliação prognóstica e na determinação dos mecanismos de evolução patológica das leucemias linfóides agudas.

Intrinsic and extrinsic circuits controling the thymic microenvironment

The thymic microenvironment plays a key role in the general process of intrathymic T cell differentiation, that ultimately yields the vast majority of the T cell repertoire. This nonlymphoid compartment is mostly composed of thymic epithelial cells (TEC), that together with dendritic cells, macrophages and elements of the extracellular matrix form a tridimensional network in which context thymocyte differentiation occurs. Microenvironmental cells modulate intrathymic T cell diferentiation by means of a variety of secretory products, comprising several cytokines and thymic hormones, as well as cell-cell interactions, including those mediated by MHC products, adhesion molecules and extracellular matrix ligands and receptors. When studying the physiology of the thymic microenvironment one should take into account the existence of intrinsic and extrinsic circuits controlling it. For example, we showed that interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma), a thymocyte-derived cytokine, is able to pleiotropically modulate both epithelial and dendritic cells of the thymus. Besides enhancing the expression of MHC class two molecules on these cell types, IFN-gamma regulates, in a dose-dependent biphasic manner, the expression of extracellular matrix ligands and receptors that implies a corresponding modulation on the ability of thymocytes to adhere onto IFN-gamma-treated TEC cultures. In addition, extrinsic endogenous circuits appear to continuously influence the thymic microenvironment. We evidenced that steroid, thyroid and pituitary hormones can modulate several aspects of TEC physiology including thymic hormone secretion, cytokeratin expression, cell growth as well as expression of extracellular matrix ligands and receptors. Latter effects directly intervene, at least as assessed by in vitro models, in TEC/thymocyte interactions. Other endogenous situations such as aging and autoimmunity also influence the thymic microenvironment. For example, in both conditions we showed a decay in thymic hormone secretion, changes in the expression of cortical and medullary cytokeratins, and an increase in extracellular matrix. Furthermore, the thymic microenvironment is modulated by stimuli from the environmental world such as infectious agents. In the Trypanosoma cruzi model, we noticed that both TEC and thymic macrophages are infected in vivo and in vitro...

A modified assay for measuring thymocyte co-stimulatory activity

The observation that murine thymocytes increase their proliferation to interleukin 1 (IL-1) in the presence of phytohemagglutinin (PHA) when pre-incubated with interleukin 2 (IL-2) allowed the introduction of a modified assay for the measurement of IL-1 or the search of thymocyte-inducing proliferative activities in biological samples. Pre-incubation of thymocytes for 24 hr with 50 u/ml IL-2, followed by washings, elicited their maximal response to IL-1 in the usual lymphocyte activating factor (LAF) assay. This suggests that sequential events lead to thymocyte activation. The responsiveness is three to five fold greater than, and the total time of assay is the same as that of the LAF assay. Interestingly, pre-incubation with IL-2 renders thymocytes more sensitive than responsive to crude monocyte conditioned media. The use of the MTT colorimetric method for the assessment of thymocyte proliferation, and of the lectin jacalin as a co-mitogen are suggested as alternatives to be used in co-stimulatory assays

Is the thymus a target organ in infectious diseases?

The thymus is a central lymphoid organ, in wich T cell precursors differentiale and generate most of the so-called T cell reprtoire. Along with a variety of acute infectious diseases, we and others determined important changes in both microenvironmental and lymphoid compartments of the organ. For example, one major and common feature observed in acute viral, bacterial and parasitic diseases, is a depletion of cortical thymocytes, mostly those bearing the CD4-CD8 double positive phenotype. This occurs simmultaneously to the relative enrichment in medullary CD4 or CD8 single positive cells, expressing high densities of the CD3 complex. Additionally we noticed a variety of changes in the thymic microenvironment (and particularly is epithelial component), comprising abnormal location of thymic epithelial cell subsets as well has a denser Ia-bearing cellular network. Moreover, the extracellular matrix network was altered with an intralobular increase of basement membrane proteins that positively correlated with the degree of thymocyte death. Lastly, anti-thymic cell antibodies were detected in both human and animal models of infectious diseases, and in some of them a phenomenon of molecular mimicry could be evidenced. Taken together, the data receiwed herein clearly show that the thymus should be regarded as a target in infectious diseases

Vaccination in murine schistosomiasis with adult worm derived antigens - II. Protective and immune response in inbred mice

Previous work in our laboratory, mainly foccused the prospects of achieving resistance against Schistosoma mansoni infection with adult worm-derived antigens in the form of a soluble extract (SE). This extract obtained by incubation of living adult schistosomes in saline, contains a large number of distinct molecules and was actually shown to be a significantly protective in different outbred animals models such as Swiss mice and rabbits. It thus appeared worthwile to investigate the potencial protective activity of SE in different inbred strains of mice, known to be highly susceptible to the infection. Herein we present data showing that DBA/2 mice, once immunized with SE acquire significant levels of resistance to a S. mansoni cercarial challenge. In addition, preliminary studies on the immune system of immunized animals reveled that, injection of SE caused no general inbalance of B or T cell responses

Immunopathology of american cutaneous leishmaniasis. Modulation of MHC class II gene products by Keratinocytes before and after glucantime therapy

Epidermal changes from 32 cutaneous and 3 mucosal American leishmaniasis (ACL) active lesions were studied for HLA-DR, -DP expression, Lanerhans cells and lymphocyte infiltration. In addition to a DR and DQ positivity at the surface of the cells of the inflammatory infiltrate, a strong reaction for DR antigens was detected on keratinocytes. Hyperplasia of Langerhans cells was present in al cutaneous lesions and epidermis was infiltrated by T lymphocytes. When healed lesions of 14 of these subjects were re-biopsied 1 to 12 months after the end of pentavalent antimonial therapy, MHC class antigens could no longer be seen on keratinocytes. Our data represrn evidence for hhe reversibility of the abnormal HLA-DR expression by keratinocytes in ACL after Glucantime therapy or spontaneous scar formation, demonstrating that this expresion is restricted to the period of active lesions. The present findings can be regarded as an indirect evidence that keratinocytes may be involved in the immunopathology of ACL